Econ final exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Econ final exam - Essay Example The price of alternative good, Y (PY) while the consumers income remains constant From the budget constraint PL1, the optimal use is at point e1 whereby the end user buys OX1 units of commodity X and OY1 units of product Y. The optimal consumption combination is located on a lower indifference curve U1. In the event that the price of commodity X falls, the buyer will tend to buy more of the good, budget constraint hence becomes flatter. The optimal consumption is now at point e2, whereby one buys OX2 units of X and OY2 units of Y. The consumer’s total utility, therefore, increases with the decrease in the price of the good with the optimal consumption combination at the indifference curve U2. This measures changes in buyer’s optimal consumption combination as a result of changes in the price of one commodity, say the price of good X (PX), which is an inferior good. The price of another good, say good Y (PY) and consumers income remaining constant. A market is a collection of consumers and producers, where consumers determine the demand and producers control the supply. In a competitive market, it is best understood in proper economic theory, where they depend on the numbers of both buyers and sellers available. In a market where the numbers of sellers drop to only two sellers, the economy is referred to as a duopoly market the price of the goods will fall below the optimal level. This is as a result of the tag war between the organization and sellers in the market. The sellers will try to win the available customers by providing a conducive price. (Jean 1991) A market with a single seller and multiple buyers is a monopoly. The prices in such kind of a market tend to rise above the optimal price of the commodity due the forces of demand and supply of the goods. With many buyers competing for a single commodity, the seller tend to

Human Resource Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 5

Human Resource Management - Case Study Example The company that is discussed in the case study is the Oceanic Airways. The case is about the human resource management of the company and how the organization has failed to maintain profitability due to a massive failure in managing in its human resource. The case discusses the factors that have led the company to its downfall. The case also gives brief information on the airline industry of Asia. The main focus of the case is on Oceanic Airway’s HR practices. The case presents the failure of the HR department of Oceanic Airways due to many factors. The information about the practices of the company is given and the main players in the organization are also discussed with the comments of the employees. The case study also identifies many problems in the organizational structure of the company. The company is has seen any interference from the government and that is considered one of the main problems of the company. Communication gap was another problem identified. There are other factors like high fuel prices and other economic factors that have contributed to the downfall of the company. These factors are more or less uncontrollable for the organization. The main information is on the human resource management practices of the company and how different human resource department work in order to perform basic functions of recruiting, selecting, training and promoting. The details of how human resource department work is provided in the case. Human resource problems of the company are actually increasing with the day with more and more employees getting disgruntle about the situation. The company has to start to think about its practices and should revamp all its policies in order to satisfy employees and in turn make profits. Employees actually are a source of income for the company especially in times of uncertainty when the airline industry is facing intense competition and fuel prices are fluctuating like anything.

Importance of Stakeholders

Importance of Stakeholders Project management is the discipline of supervising all the different resources and aspects of the project in such a way so that the resources will deliver all the output that is required to complete the project within the defined scope, time, and cost constraints (Lewis A. , 2010). It is the application of skill, knowledge, tools and techniques to project activities to achieve project requirements. It can be accomplished through the application of initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling and closing (Lewis, 2007). This is mainly done in order to meet the exceeding needs and expectations of the stakeholders (Introduction to Project Management Principles, 2003). The call for project management was determined by the various businesses that realised the benefits of organising, communicating and co-ordinating work across the various departments and professions. This helps in coordinating the various resources of a project durning the project initiation stage so that by the time the project has begun its work all stakeholders and team members will have a clear cut understanding and acceptance of the process, methodology and expected outcomes of the project. (Lewis A. , 2010) Stakeholders refers to those individuals or a group who has vested interest in the outcome or the results of the body of a work in an organisation. (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2008) defined stakeholders as the people or small groups who depend on the organisation to fulfill their own goals and on whom, in turn, the organisation depends. They may be actively involved in the project and may have an interest on the total performance or completion of the project. They have the power to exert positive or negative influence over the project, its deliverables and its team members.(Bourne, 2009). Hence stakeholders can be called as the key people involved in a project. They have an interest in the execution of the project, getting the approvals and resources, and they also have a stake in the project outcome. Although they may not have an official role on the project, these are the people who will ultimately estimate the success or failure of a project (Koning, 2009). IMPORTANCE OF STAKEHOLDERS All projects, in spite of its size, needs to have a clear cut idea and agreement about: who will decide the requirements of the project, the budget, resources, standards and in case of any change in the project, who will do the authorization of the changes and so on. Although a project manager could independently decide all these factors, unless and until the key stakeholders agree to the decision made, the project will not be able to progress and will have no scope for success (Koning, 2009). STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT The term stakeholder engagement is budding as a means of describing a broader, more inclusive, and continuous process. It takes place between the company and the potentially impacted stakeholders that encompasses a range of activities, approaches and, the entire span of a project. The change that is likely to occur reflects the broader change in the business and financial worlds. It increasingly recognizes the business and reputational risks that may occur as a result of poor stakeholder relations. It also places a growing emphasis on corporate social responsibility, transparency and reporting (Corporation, 2007) . Stakeholder engagement can therefore be defined as the process of effectively eliciting the stakeholders views on their relationship with the organization (Friedman Miles, 2006). Stakeholder engagement is increasingly becoming a part of mainstream business and is being used to improve communications, obtain wider community support or buy-in for projects, gather useful data and ideas, enhance public sector or corporate reputation and encourages more sustainable decision making (Gray, 2002). Without proper engagement of the stakeholders, it is impossible to have a common abiding agreement, ownership and support for a particular project. Any company or an organisation is likely to benefit if it takes care of the environment in which it is operating and aiming to meet the needs of its stakeholders (Gray, 2002). Stakeholder engagement gives the impression of corporate responsibility. It appears evident that if an organisation shows commitment, through policy and practice, to stakeholder involvement it is acting responsibly towards these stakeholders: the more an organisation engages with its stakeholders, the more accountable and responsible that organisation is t owards these stakeholders (Greenwood, 2007). It is traditionally seen as a corporate responsibility in action. The impetus behind the use of the term engagement in corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the need to emphasize that, for firms merely to interact with stakeholders is no longer sufficient and the interaction with stakeholders is a logically necessary activity of business (Noland Phillips, 2010). WHY ENGAGE WITH STAKEHOLDERS IS NECESSARY? Effective stakeholder engagement relies on a commitment to engage and communicate openly and honestly with stakeholders. The benefits an organization gets from stakeholder engagement activities are cooperation on operations/activities and at times on policy development as well. It enhances the community confidence and creates a more user-friendly, community/industry targeted service. Future costs can be reduced: for example, times spend in managing the crises with regard to the confidence level of the stakeholders can be avoided. It also helps in improving the access to emerging issues and communities, and helps in gaining the capacity to handle them before they develop a negative vibe in the community. This will include avoiding negative press releases. In the case of changes and benefits that can take place inside the organisation are as follows: It increases the organisational effectiveness which will result in more effective and efficient practice and high quality policy input within the organisation It enhances the two-way communication skills and better understanding on both sides and thereby bridges the cultural gaps. It develops a culture of innovation and learning, for example by building the knowledge into our decisions and practices. Simplifies the conflict resolution through building trust, and a clearer articulation of what cannot be resolved. STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT PLANNING Often the importance of stakeholder engagement is overlooked. It allows you to identify strengths and weaknesses and ultimately develop strategies to engage effectively. The stakeholder engagement is a critical element to the success of the project and it may be useful to develop a stakeholder engagement plan. For this, various sources, conventional and unconventional is used such as the media, online, literature or even word of mouth. As a part of the analysis, it is important to examine existing, current and past relationships, available resources and constraints and the desirable outcomes it looks forward to. For this purpose, the different desired outcomes of the stakeholders as well as the stakeholders engagement processes is analysed and studied. DESIRED OUTCOMES Desired outcomes are nothing but the overall aims of the engagement process. The desired outcomes for undertaking stakeholder engagement process would be Improved personal or working relationships Changed attitudes Improved communication channels Promotion of expansive circle of responsibility for actions and decisions Identification of key issues, conflicts and benefits Creation of new ideas Establishment of new orderly partnerships Improved services for society Change in policy Cost savings to long term Betterment of individual and organisational learning Local support and hostility supported for a new initiative Increased community union and strengthened shared identity (Gray, 2002) STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT PROCESSES Stakeholder is an umbrella term which incorporates range of activities and interactions over the project life cycle. These activities can be divided into following components (Corporation, 2007): Stakeholder Identification and Analysis Information Disclosure Stakeholder Consultation Negotiation and Partnerships Stakeholder Involvement in Project Monitoring Reporting to Stakeholders (Appendix 2) STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS When it comes to identifying the key stakeholders, the project sponsor works along with the project manager to identify the stakeholders. Stakeholders may comprise of a wide range of people that come from different areas of business. It may be people from senior management, human resources, finance, marketing and IT departments. They typically have a particular business stream and their interest in the project is focused on the needs of their particular area. Some stakeholders will have more interest and involvement than the others. (Koning, 2009) When identifying stakeholders, it may be helpful to first determine the most relevant dimensions: organisational unit, process, function, job role, geographic area and so on. It is more important to consider the external stakeholders including partners, suppliers, customers, customers cutomers, consumers and those who would wish they were not stakeholders, such as victims of crimes etc (Bradley, 2006). It is quite important to note that stakeholders are selected with a verification process. It is necessary to ensure that all relevant parties are represented and those participants indicate the interests of those they claim to speak on behalf of (Friedman Miles, 2006). Once the identificationis completed, the group of stakeholders are analysised. It is important to understand the interests and opinions of every stakeholder as they may affect the project work. All the stakeholders may not share the same opinion and may have a unified opinion or priorities. Hence conducting a stakeholder analysis has become so important because of its increased interconnected nature of the world (Ketti, 2002). Hence, finding out what the problemis and what is the right solutions might be taken as a way to overcome this problem. This will also help in identifying the stakeholders who are a part of this crucial aspect of problem solving (Bardach, 1998). Stakeholder Analyses mainly helps in better organisational performance and fulfilling its mission. Fulfilling the mission should arise from producing fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what the organisation is, what it does and why it does it (Bryson, 1995). Hence it is quite important to study and f ind out the key players amongst the stakeholders itself for the successful completion of the project. Again as said above, the success of the project, not only depends on being able to deliver customers demand but also in being able to met all the stakeholder expectations as well.. The selected stakeholders play a primary task in making the important decisions during the time of initiation, planning and execution of the project. The five primary project stakeholders that are present in most of the projects are: the project manager, the project team, the functional management, the sponsor, and the customer.ÂÂ   In a larger sense, anyone who participates in the project or is impacted by its results is a stakeholder. Each stakeholder has an essential contribution to make and they need to meet their expectations. Contribution made by different people to the project is the principal criteria for identifying stakeholders (Project Stakeholders, their Roles and Contribution, 2006) (Appendix 1) COMMUNICATION IN STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT The core of all relationships is communication and stakeholder engagement is essentially a complex relationship. Negotiation occurs when two or more people are prepared to bargain to achieve a mutually acceptable solution. It is important to acknowledge the effects it might have on the relationship with the organization. Communication also involves being open and honest about the objectives and planned activities. The stakeholders should be communicated in the loop as much as possible, whether it is through email trails, phone calls or face to face engagement. The latter is often the most effective form of stakeholder engagement as it gives the relationship a more human element. A well-informed stakeholder can prevent a project from continuing on a path that will fail to deliver the required benefits, by highlighting issues and concerns as soon as they arise. (Koning, 2009) STAKEHOLDERS INVOLVEMENT IN THE PROJECT MONITORING Stakeholders involvement in any project improves the progression of the project and as project monitoring consists of collection of the data and reporting information according to the project plans, budget and requirements, stakeholder involvement and interaction is needed (Tammer, 2009). The assessment and reporting technique should depend on the size and complicatedness of the project and stakeholder position. If the stakeholders are lacking the required skills in monitoring, then adequate training need to be provided to them for fostering the participatory monitoring. The participation of the project affected stakeholders in monitoring the social and environmental affects is a good practice. External monitoring can lead to the development of trust between the project and the primary stakeholders. CONCLUSION The stakeholder engagement always provides opportunities to further align business practices with community needs and expectations aiding to drive long term sustainability and shareholder value. Stakeholder engagement must take place if the organisation truly needs the inputs from the people involved in the business for decision making. The stakeholder engagement planning should be done in such a manner that it remains beneficial to the organisation. Stakeholder engagement assists any organisation to compete with its rivals in a complex and changing business climates. Works Cited Bardach, E. (1998). Getting Agencies to Work Together. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. Bourne, L. (2009, September 22). Who is a Stakeholder? Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Project Management Institute: http://blogs.pmi.org/blog/voices_on_project_management/2009/09/who-is-a-stakeholder.html Bradley, G. (2006). Benefit Realisation Management. A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through change . Bryson, J. (1995). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Corporation, I. F. (2007). Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets. Washington: International Finance corporation. Friedman, A. L., Miles, S. (2006). Stakeholders: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Gray, R. (2002). The Social Accounting Project and Accounting Organizations and Society (Vol. 27). Accounting Organizations and Society. Greenwood, M. (2007). Stakeholder Engagement: Beyond the Myth of Corporate Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics , 74, 315-327. Introduction to Project Management Principles. (2003). Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Human Resources and Skills Development Canada: http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/hip/lld/olt/resources/toolkit/project_management/project_management_intro.shtml Johnson, G., Scholes, K., Whittington, R. (2008). Exploring corporate strategy: text and cases. Peason Education. Ketti, D. (2002). TheTransformation of Governance: Public Adminitration Twenty-First Century America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Koning, L. (2009, May 1). Project Stakeholders. Retrieved March 22, 2011, from Insightful Writers: http://www.suite101.com/content/project-stakeholders-a114023 Lewis, A. (2010). Introduction to Project Management. Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Project Smart: http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/introduction-project-management.html Lewis, J. P. (2007). Fundamentals of Project Management. New York: AMACOM, American Management Assciation. Noland, J., Phillips, R. (2010). Stakeholder Engagement, Discourse Ethics and Strategic Management. International Journal of Management Reviews , 39-49. Project Stakeholders, their Roles and Contribution. (2006). Retrieved March 28, 2011, from Business e-coaching: http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/project_stakeholders.html Stakeholders Engagement. (2010, October 25). Retrieved March 28, 2011, from Continuous Developer: http://continuousdevelopment.wordpress.com/2010/10/25/stakeholder-engagement/ Tammer, M. D. (2009). Early stakeholder involvement in projects. PM World Today , 9 (4). Bibliography Bardach, E. (1998). Getting Agencies to Work Together. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. Bourne, L. (2009, September 22). Who is a Stakeholder? Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Project Management Institute: http://blogs.pmi.org/blog/voices_on_project_management/2009/09/who-is-a-stakeholder.html Bradley, G. (2006). Benefit Realisation Management. A Practical Guide to Achieving Benefits through change . Bryson, J. (1995). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Carroll, A. B., Buccholtz, A. K. (2008). Business and Society: Ethics and Stakeholder. Management. Mason: Cengage Learning. Condrey, S. E. (2005). Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Corporation, I. F. (2007). Stakeholder Engagement: A Good Practice Handbook for Companies Doing Business in Emerging Markets. Washington: International Finance corporation. Friedman, A. L., Miles, S. (2006). Stakeholders: Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Gray, R. (2002). The Social Accounting Project and Accounting Organizations and Society (Vol. 27). Accounting Organizations and Society. Greenwood, M. (2007). Stakeholder Engagement: Beyond the Myth of Corporate Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics , 74, 315-327. Introduction to Project Management Principles. (2003). Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Human Resources and Skills Development Canada: http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/hip/lld/olt/resources/toolkit/project_management/project_management_intro.shtml Johnson, G., Scholes, K., Whittington, R. (2008). Exploring corporate strategy: text and cases. Peason Education. Ketti, D. (2002). TheTransformation of Governance: Public Adminitration Twenty-First Century America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Koning, L. (2009, May 1). Project Stakeholders. Retrieved March 22, 2011, from Insightful Writers: http://www.suite101.com/content/project-stakeholders-a114023 Lewis, A. (2010). Introduction to Project Management. Retrieved March 20, 2011, from Project Smart: http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/introduction-project-management.html Lewis, J. P. (2007). Fundamentals of Project Management. New York: AMACOM, American Management Assciation. Noland, J., Phillips, R. (2010). Stakeholder Engagement, Discourse Ethics and Strategic Management. International Journal of Management Reviews , 39-49. Phillips, R. (1997). Stakeholder Theory and a Principle of Fairness. Business Ethics Quarterly , 7, 51-66. Project Stakeholders, their Roles and Contribution. (2006). Retrieved March 28, 2011, from Business e-coaching: http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/project_stakeholders.html Stakeholders Engagement. (2010, October 25). Retrieved March 28, 2011, from Continuous Developer: http://continuousdevelopment.wordpress.com/2010/10/25/stakeholder-engagement/ Tammer, M. D. (2009). Early stakeholder involvement in projects. PM World Today , 9 (4). APPENDIX APPENDIX 1 KEY STAKEHOLDER IN A PROJECT Internal Stakeholder External Stakeholders Project sponsor Customers Functional Department Government Corporate Leadership Competitors Other Project Teams Joint Venture Partners Employees Vendors Unions Investors/ Shareholders

Outsourcing Development Work to India Essay -- Globalization Jobs Work

Outsourcing Development Work to India I. Introduction Globalization has had a major impact on the way business is conducted. Companies are increasingly turning to offshore software development outlets for design management. Anywhere from one-half to two-thirds of all Fortune 500 companies are already outsourcing to India and the amount of work done there for U.S. companies is expected to more than double this year according to Forrester Research. This paper will take a look at some of the arguments for and against outsourcing IT development to India. Most importantly this paper will take a look at ethical standpoints taken on outsourcing. But first, we'll take a look at the history of outsourcing to India. II. History In the late 1980's the rise of India outsourcing had its start. During this phase, India provided skilled contract workers for the US. Efforts to outsource projects to India arose in the late 1990's. This was driven by a combination of rapidly changing technologies and shrinking IT budgets Little by little the small offshore development projects started to multiply. In the beginning it was trial and error because there wasn't much focus on a repeatable and process driven model. During this time offshore outsourcing led to several failures. The big outsourcing force during the late 1990's came with Y2K. Work needed to get done quick and outsourcing to Indian companies was a solution to this. Indian companies had the ability to scale rapidly. Y2K conversion wasn't too high in the value-chain job, however it gave Indian companies a view of what was possible. Then came process maturity and standardization through processes. Indian companies have spent much time honing rigorous developmen... ... http://news.com.com/2100-1011-5175699.html [4] Gupta, Sachin. For a global software company, outsourcing began at inception . World Paper. April 19. 2004 http://www.worldpaper.com/2004/april/april4.html [5] India greets H-1B cutback with a shrug -- But cap could sting if U.S. market rebounds. Electronic Engineering Times: 1, October 13, 2003. [6] Kripalani, Majeet & Egnardio, Pete. The Rise Of India. Business Week Online. December 8, 2003. http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/03_49/b3861001_mz001.htm [7] Outsourcing created more jobs in US. MSN Business. IANS. http://autofeed.msn.co.in/pandoraV2/output/33601A5C-9FA2-491F-8E3B-EBC7CC04EDAF.asp [8] Pink, Daniel. Wired Magazine. The New Face of the Silicon Age. How India became the capital of the computing revolution. February 4, 2004. http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.02/india.html

Short Essay About Sports and Education

The great Duke of Wellington, of Waterloo Victory fame, once saw the boys of Eton public School playing on the field and was moved to say, There our great battles were won† He meant that young lads acquire on the playground not only physical stamina but discipline, the habit of obedience, the will to win, -and these virtues make them good soldiers when their country calls them to the field of battle. It is good to enjoy the delight of running about in the open field and to ‘feel life in every limb’.But that only makes the lesson that we learn, of discipline, obedience and tenacity, all the more pleasing. To develop character not by arid and dry moral lessons, but in the course of our enjoyment of games, is a privilege which we must set store by. The most important lesson that sports of all kinds teach us is a sense of discipline. A good sportsman must always learn to obey the rules of the games and the orders of the captain. He knows the value of the proverb â€⠀œ â€Å"He who knows how to obey will know how to command†.Discipline goes hand in hand with duty. On the playground, each individual has an allotted duty to perform. He has to carry out his share. It is his duty to help in winning games by obeying his captain and maintaining teamwork through concerted movement and display of spirit de crops (team spirit). Another great virtue, which sports help us acquire, is the will to win. Life is a struggle, a constant fight against difficulties. The week-willed man resigns himself to what he calls his fate. Hr belongs to the ranks of the defeated.He is not a sportsman. For a sportsman takes defeats and disappointments as a true part of the game in its stride. Today he is defeated, but he knows that tomorrow he may win. He knows also how to take defeat in a sporting spirit, and to prepare for a greater fight. The true sportsman knows also the value of unity in action. Look at the rowers in a boat from the cockswain to the helmsman, how harmonious and concerted are their strokes. If one of them misses his rhythm, the harmony is destroyed.How often have we not seen on the football ground, a splendid opportunity lost by the selfish desire or individualistic effort of one man to score! It is the same in the cricket field; the same everywhere, not individualistic display for record but to play for the team. Sports should teach us another lesson, which is often ignored, to obey the umpire or the referee whether he is right or wrong. In the hard battle of life, we do not always get justice. Often the verdict goes against us through no fault of ours.A true sportsman takes these ‘slings and arrows of outrageous fortune’ as in the course or part of the game. He is not disheartened but prepares for a further effort; for he is not to question why in defiance. So sports of all kinds are not only good for the body, but they are good for the mind and for the moral make-up, i. e. that is, conducive to building the ch aracter. The lessons learnt on the playground will make better soldiers of us in the battlefield of life, in our war with adversity, illness, opposition and destiny itself.

Columbus vs. de Las Casas

In the textbook of Bartolome de las Casas From The Very Brief Relation of the Devastation of the Indies, de la Casas said â€Å"This was the first land in the New World to be destroyed and depopulated by the Christians, and here they began their subjection of the women and children, taking them away from the Indians to use them and ill use them, eating the food they provided with their sweat and toil. Base on this saying we can guest his thought about the New World and its inhabitants, he explains how the Spaniards have behaved and acting, killing, terrorizing, afflicting, torturing, and destroying the native peoples, doing all this with the strangest and most varied new methods of cruelty, never seen or heard of before. De las Casas think this new world was the first one to be devastated destroyed and conquered by imperialist and colonialist Spaniards. Columbus’s letters we can see the arrogance he possessed in claiming the islands he found. In his letter describing his findings to his king, he wrote, â€Å"And there I found very many islands filled with people innumerable and of them all I have taken possession for their Highnesses. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Columbus never stopped to consider that these islands were not his to take, nor were the people that inhabited them. He simply took over these lands, even going so far as to rename them all. His first sight of what he termed â€Å"Indians† was of a group of attractive, unclothed people. Speculation is that, to him, their nakedness represented a lack of culture, customs, and religion. Columbus saw this as an opportunity to spread the word of God, while at the same considering how they could possibly be exploited. He believed that they would be easy to conquer because they appeared defenseless, easy to trick because they lacked experience in trade, and an easy source of profit because they could be enslaved. It obviously did not occur to Columbus to consider these people in any terms aside from that of master and slave. Columbus thinks that New World could be well adapted for the working of the gold mines and for all kinds of commerce.

Aztec Origins and the Founding of Tenochtitlan

Aztec Origins and the Founding of Tenochtitlan The origins of the Aztec Empire are part legend, part archaeological and historical fact. When the Spanish conquistador Hernn Cortà ©s arrived in Basin of Mexico in 1517, he found that the Aztec Triple Alliance, a strong political, economic and military pact, controlled the basin and indeed much of central America. But where did they come from, and how did they get to be so powerful? The Origins of the Aztecs The Aztecs, or, more properly, the Mexica as they called themselves, were not originally from the Valley of Mexico but rather migrated from the north. They called their homeland Aztlan, The Place of Herons., but Aztlan is a location which has not as yet been identified archaeologically and was likely at least partly mythical. According to their own records, the Mexica and other tribes were known as a group as the Chichimeca, left their homes in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States because of a great drought. This story is told in several surviving codices (painted folding books), in which the Mexica are shown carrying with them the idol of their patron deity Huitzilopochtli. After two centuries of migration, at around AD 1250, the Mexica arrived in the Valley of Mexico. Today, the Basin of Mexico is filled with the sprawling metropolis of Mexico City; but underneath the modern streets are the ruins of Tenochtitln, the site where the Mexica settled, and the capital city for the Aztec empire. Basin of Mexico Before the Aztecs When the Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it was far from an empty place. Because of its wealth of natural resources, the valley has been continuously occupied for thousands of years, the first known substantial occupation established at least as early as the second century BC. The Valley of Mexico lies ~2,100 meters (7,000 feet) above sea level, and it is surrounded by high mountains, some of which are active volcanoes. Water coursing down in streams from these mountains created a series of shallow, marshy lakes that provided a rich source for animals and fish, plants, salt and water for cultivation. Today the Valley of Mexico is almost entirely covered by the monstrous expansion of Mexico City: but there were ancient ruins as well as thriving communities when the Aztecs arrived, including the abandoned stone structures of two major cities: Teotihuacan and Tula, both referred to by the Aztecs as the Tollans. Teotihuacn: Almost a thousand years before the Aztecs, the huge and carefully planned city of Teotihuacn (occupied between 200 BC and AD 750) flourished there. Today Teotihuacan is a popular archaeological site a few miles north of modern Mexico City that attracts thousands of tourists each year. The word Teotihuacn is a Nahuatl (the language spoken by the Aztecs) word meaning The Birthplace of the Gods. We dont know its real name, but the Aztecs gave this name to the city because it was a sacred place associated with the legendary origins of the world. Tula: Another city that developed in the Valley of Mexico before the Aztecs was the city of Tula, the early post-classic capital of the Toltecs between AD 950 and 1150. The Toltecs were considered by the Aztecs to be the ideal rulers, brave warriors who excelled in the arts and sciences. Tula was so revered by the Aztecs that the king Motecuhzoma (aka Montezuma) sent people to dig up Toltec objects for use in the temples at Tenochtit ln. The Mexica were awestruck by the massive structures built by the Tollans, considering Teotihuacan to be the sacred setting for the creation of the current world or Fifth Sun. The Aztecs carried away and reused objects from the sites: more than 40 Teotihuacan-style objects have been found in offerings within Tenochtitlans ceremonial precinct. Aztec Arrival in Tenochtitln When the Mexica arrived in the Valley of Mexico about 1200 AD, both Teotihuacn and Tula had been abandoned for centuries; but other groups were already settled on the best land. These were groups of Chichimecs, related to the Mexica, who had migrated from the north in earlier times. The late-coming Mexica were forced to settle on the inhospitable hill of Chapultepec or Grasshopper Hill. There they became vassals of the city of Culhuacan, a prestigious city whose rulers were considered the heirs of the Toltecs. As acknowledgment for their assistance in battle, the Mexica were given one of the daughters of the King of Culhuacan to be worshiped as a goddess/priestess. When the king arrived to attend the ceremony, he found one of the Mexica priests dressed in the flayed skin of his daughter: the Mexica reported to the king that their God Huitzilopochtli had asked for the sacrifice of the princess. The sacrifice and flaying of the Culhua Princess provoked a ferocious battle, which the Mexica lost. They were forced to leave Chapultepec and move to some marshy islands in the middle of the lake. Tenochtitln: Living in a Marshland After they were forced out of Chapultepec, according to the Mexica myth, the Aztecs wandered for weeks, searching for a place to settle. Huitzilopochtli appeared to the Mexica leaders and indicated a place where a great eagle was perched on a cactus killing a snake. This place, smack dab in the middle of a marsh with no proper ground at all, was where the Mexica founded their capital, Tenochtitln. The year was 2 Calli (Two House) in the Aztec calendar, which translates in our modern calendars to AD 1325. The apparently unfortunate position of their city, in the middle of a marsh, actually facilitated economic connections and protected Tenochtitln from military attacks by restricting access to the site by canoe or boat traffic. Tenochtitln grew rapidly as both a commercial and military center. The Mexica were skillful and fierce soldiers and, despite the story of the Culhua princess, they were also able politicians who created solid alliances with the surrounding cities. Growing a Home in the Basin The city grew rapidly, with palaces and well-organized residential areas and aqueducts providing fresh water to the city from the mountains. At the center of the city stood the sacred precinct with ball courts, schools for nobles, and priests quarters. The ceremonial heart of the city and of the whole empire was the Great Temple of Mexico-Tenochtitln, known as the Templo Mayor or Huey Teocalli (the Great House of the Gods). This was a stepped pyramid with a double temple on top dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the main deities of the Aztecs. The temple, decorated with bright colors, was rebuilt many times during Aztec history. The seventh and final version was seen and described by Hernn Cortà ©s and the conquistadors. When Cortà ©s and his soldiers entered the Aztec capital on November 8, 1519, they found one of the largest cities in the world. Sources Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Berdan FF. 2014. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press.Healan D. 2012. The Archaeology of Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Research 20(1):53-115.Smith ME. 2013. The Aztecs. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.Van Tuerenhout DR. 2005, The Aztecs: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO Inc.